From Alchemy to Chemistry: The Significance of Scientific Experimentation

Since the beginning of mankind, humans have sought to try to make sense of the world. Spirituality and philosophy have been outlets to give people direction and understanding of the mysteries of life. One of the philosophies used throughout history to understand and take control of such mysteries is alchemy. The word alchemy comes from the Arabic words of Al,  meaning “the,” and kīmiyā' meaning “art of transmuting metals.”At its core, the main goals of alchemy were discovering an elixir of life, finding a substance that would allow base metals to become gold, and revealing the innate spiritual connection humans have to the cosmos. The supernatural and mystical connotations of alchemy made it vulnerable to con-artists, which gave it a negative reputation for much of history. Alchemists came from all walks of life, with differing levels of knowledge and integrity, which made a unified understanding of alchemy difficult from the public eye. Despite this, alchemists gained support from influential leaders in history due to their contributions in medicine, physics, metallurgy, mining, among other disciplines. In early modern Europe, alchemy played a significant role in representing the shift towards modern science and transforming popular attitudes toward the natural world. 

The origins of Alchemy extend back centuries into history. Alchemy was developed in three main branches: Chinese Alchemy, Western Alchemy, and Islamic Alchemy. Throughout these branches, a main goal of alchemy was purification of the spirit with the pursuit of immortality. Chinese Alchemy focused mainly on medicinal issues, with a main goal of it being to find a grand elixir of immortality, known as Weidan.

Western branches focused primarily on metallurgy and the discovery of the “philosopher's stone”. Ancient Greeks wanted to know the deeper levels of the materials they interacted with in the world, which led to their hypothesis that everything was connected to a “prime matter”. Western Alchemy was deeply connected to astrology and Stoic philosophy as well-- with the overarching goal of understanding one’s place in the cosmos as a key question. A leading contributor to Alexandrian Western Alchemy was Zosimus, who demonstrated advanced craftsmanship and supposed transmutation as early as the 4th century. Main goals were chrysopoeia, transmutation of base metals into gold; the synthesis of an elixir of immortality; a medicine to cure any disease; and the development of an alkahest or universal solvent. 

 Islamic Alchemy dates back to the 7th century, when the center of learning of the old world moved from Damascus to Baghdad. Ancient Greek alchemal works were translated and reviwed by Muslim scholars, and schools of thought were created to study alchemy. Many Islamic scholars and students at this time collectively took the pen name “Jabir ibn Hayaan” to research translated works and explore the newfound ancient concepts on a deeper level. The “Jabirian corpus” is a result of this, as an exhaustive interdisciplinary publication about alchemy, cosmology, numerology, astrology, medicine, magic, mysticism and philosophy. “Jabir” had a main pursuit of Takwin, or the creation of life in “his” long lasting philosophical discovery. “He” also introduced the search for the illusive Philosopher’s stone -- the idea that a substance existed to turn base metals like mercury into more valuable ones like gold and silver. The Islamic branch of alchemy made significant strides in developing a foundation for the history of alchemy.

Alchemy being introduced to Europe greatly changed the societal trajectory of the continent. The Islamic conquests of the Iberian peninsula in the 12th century brought the study of alchemy to Europe. The rise of alchemy in Europe began to exponentially grow in 1144 with “The Book of Composition of Alchemy” which was  the first text translated from Arabic to Latin by Robert of Chester.  This translation opened Europeans to a completely different way of thinking and inspired many alchemists to start their own pursuits towards transmutation and experimentation. Once in Europe, Arabic works were translated into Latin and the author's name “Jabir” turned to “Geber.” Along with this change, it is suspected that other shifts in information occurred during the Latin translation. Many of the concepts of alchemy were incorporated with Christian metaphors to gain appeal to the new western audience. Great scholars of the time used the sensationalism of alchemy to promote their own studies and popularity.  St. Anselm, a Benedictine monk and Christian philosopher, justified alchemy by saying that faith and rationalism are compatible. Roger Bacon was a medieval English philosopher and friar who practiced alchemy and popularized it through his work the Opus Majus, a book that discussed alchemy alongside mathematics, astronomy and optics. Endorsements of alchemy by trusted, educated people in society normalized it to the general public. Alchemy was a novel and mystical craft that fascinated people because of its illusive history and goals. 

Many people used alchemy as a vessel to experiment in varying fields of study at the time. A great contributor to the alchemy of Early Modern Europe was Theophrastus von Hohenheim, or “Paracelsus'', a  Swiss interdisciplinary physician who used the study of alchemy as a part of his craft. Paracelsus sought to “separate the impure from the pure.” He introduced a balance known as the “tria parma” of the three controlling substances of mercury, sulfur, and salt to maintain health. He approached alchemy as a frequent user of plant remedies and herbal medicine through the lens of health and believed in “harmony of man the microcosm and nature the macrocosm.” He was a practical alchemist and his findings showed that alchemy could contribute to everyday life. His work included discovering medical chemistry, or iatrochemistry, greatly influencing the world of medicine. Paracelsus was a key example of how alchemy was used as a facilitator towards further scientific research at the time. The alchemy concept of reducing all things to their base elements was applied to make further advancements in daily life.

The Rise of alchemy in Europe can greatly be attributed to significant  and  influential leaders who endorsed alchemy. Many were drawn to the religious symbology of alchemal thought, with the purification of metals connected to the spiritual purification of man.John Dee was the occultist advisor to Queen Elizabeth I, and spent much of his time devoted to alchemy, the occult, and divination. His influence on Queen Elizabeth showed the public that alchemy could be trusted as a philosophy because of the endorsement of such a prominent figure. Rudolf II, the Holy Roman Emperor in the late 16th and early 17th centuries was a so-called “intellectual devotee” to the occult as well. Alchemy was the most advanced science at the time and Rudolf fully endorsed it. He brought alchemists such as John Dee to court and was even known to have his own alchemy lab to do experiments. The normalization of alchemy reinforced by the most influential people in society at the time greatly increased the prevalence and influence of alchemy among learned people. 

Life as an alchemist was hard, however. There were no guilds to support alchemists because they still were seen as fringe members of society. This  made their craft incredibly entrepreneurial. There was also a great disapproval of alchemists as they were accused of being tricksters and charletains. This led to a permanently tarnished reputation for many. Acclaimed scholar Albertus Magnus is quoted to have disproved alchemy, saying that “Alchemy cannot change species but only imitate them… I have myself tested alchemical gold and found that after six or seven ignitions it was converted into powder.” Leonhard Thurneisser was also opposed to alchemy and railed against the ‘perceived falsehoods’ of alchemists. The sometimes misled perception of alchemist in society also led to the difficult situations of alchemists finding themselves held fatally responsible for the work they did, with the “scientific authority residing with the patrons of alchemy.” The result of an experimentation sometimes resulted in the immediate death of an alchemist if a result was undesired by a sponsor. Although there were trustworthy alchemists who valued their craft, the high number of people who used alchemy as a way to lie and cheat people  greatly influenced its reputation. Alchemy was a field that many didn’t truly understand which led to misinformation and misdirection. People had trouble conceptualizing the original philosophy of alchemy as a philosophy for exploration and discovery of man without getting caught up in the more exciting surface goals of transmutation and finding the fountain of youth. 

A shift towards more traditional science as we know of it today could be seen in the 17th century. Robert Boyle articulated “Boyle’s law,” in 1662 about the properties of gas. Although Boyle is known often as the father of modern chemistry, he was still in the early stages of being still very clearly an alchemist and natural philosopher in many ways. Boyle also contributed to the literary canon of the transmutation of elements by writing two papers on the subject. A main contribution of Boyle was his “Corpusularian hypothesis,” where he discussed that all matter consisted of a different arrangement of the same “corpuscles.”Boyle combined Aristotle’s theories of particles with his own alchemical experience to come up with his hypothesis. With this logic, transforming gold into mercury would be a simple rearranging of these corpuscles. Boyle was important because he represented the clear shift towards more practical chemistry that we see today. At his core, Boyle is still an alchemist, but he established a key foundation of thought that showed the values of alchemy moving towards a more non-mystical science. Boyle enabled a world where “chemistry was no longer an intruder at the table of philosophic discussion, but an invited guest.”Boyle used his theories about chemistry to justify his thoughts on God, claiming that God would “gradually reveal all knowledge… to good Christians in heaven.”

Alchemy was extremely significant to the scientific world despite its reputation as not being a truthful pursuit. Many scientists understood that the roots of alchemy were in antiquity and, although some basics of its philosophy were wrong, it contributed to a framework of understanding scientific methods and thought. Alchemists created tools, instruments, and techniques that are still valuable even though alchemy as a theory has been discredited.This influence makes alchemy unique. People were able to understand the study of alchemy as valuable in some ways while also acknowledging its shortcomings.

In the late 16th century, Andreas Libavius wrote a textbook on alchemy called Alchemia. This was seen as blasphemous by the alchemy community because it served to remove a layer of mystery that existed in alchemy. In his textbook, Libavius created detailed accounts summarizing the discoveries made in alchemy before. He stripped alchemy of its previous illusive alchemal vocabulary. He wrote detailed accounts of safety practices, how to set up a lab, transmutation, and chemical analysis. His alchemical work in taking away a level of secrecy in the field led to fundamental discoveries in chemistry, with the discovery of how to make hydrochloric acid, ammonium sulfate, and chloride. Libavius was a key member in bridging the gap between alchemy and chemistry in early modern Europe. He was quoted by saying, “If chemistry was about the mixtures of the material world, then what is appropriate about chemistry and what should count as chemical knowledge had to be found entirely in the physical stuff of the earth”. His discoveries showed the shift towards more detailed experimentation and away from the commonly cryptic ways that alchemists shared their information. Science was shifting away from the supernatural and physical progress was being made by key figures such as Libavius. 

Alchemy prepared the public to eventually accept evolutions in scientific thought during the Enlightenment. At its core, the reputation of new experimentation and science in early modern Europe was dependent on politics and individual trust of the people and the leaders of the time. Eventually, science and human reason triumphed over mysticism as communities had more and more distrust towards alchemists in society. Over time, alchemists worked to expand the discoveries of those who came before them, just like our current scientific world is constantly reevaluating what we believe is the most accurate portrayal of the world through new discoveries. The scientific method and the value of experimentation was already introduced to society, through alchemy. The connection between alchemy and the roots of medical chemistry and corpuscular philosophy are key stepping stones to the place in scientific history we are today. Alchemy stood as living proof of intercultural collaboration and sharing of knowledge to understand the complexities of our world.

The Enlightenment brought an even deeper shift away from alchemy as the mental worlds of individuals were transitioning to secularized and non mystical thought. Pierre Bayle, a French philosopher, was known to have an extreme distaste for the supernatural. The appeal of the mystical supernatural of alchemy was losing its appeal as a way of understanding the world after so long. Despite this, Bruce Moran, a historian, is quoted to have said, “chemistry itself did not so much replace alchemy as subsume it.” The pursuit of progressing science and knowledge was a main priority during the Enlightenment period. Chemistry was an outlet for experimentation and discovery at a time where understanding the physical world was a priority. Chemistry was practical because it was interdisciplinary, but also was exciting and new. It allowed scientists to test their theories, which is one reason it was referred to as "experimental physics." Physics relied heavily on theory and mathematics, but chemistry's use of experimentation gave it hands on value to many. One of the complaints of Francis Bacon at the time was the lack of consistency in nomenclature of scientific phenomena.  This was in large part because of the influence of alchemists in the scientific sphere. Alchemists used Decknamen or cryptic terms for certain ingredients to keep their recipes and techniques secret. This confusing way of organization was synthesized into understandable content when Lavoiser de Morveau, came up with a complete basis of modern chemical language, nomenclature. Lavoiser revolutionized chemistry by creating a dictionary of terms which helped people understand previous experiments and grow in their research. This allowed people to have a wealth of knowledge that they could turn back to as a backbone for their own experiments and discoveries. 

Brilliant chemists emerged from the world of science post-alchemy. Although alchemists never truly turned lead into gold, they demonstrated a basis of understanding scientific experimentation that allowed for the progression of science. The creation of the periodic table created after the peak of alchemy established a foundation for even more chemical experimentation by Russian scientist Dmitri Mendeleev. The roots of our modern scientific world have the mystical history of alchemy to think. Alchemy served as an art of intrigue and excitement, for people to continue to question the mysteries of the world with the glimmer of hope that immortality and riches loomed just over the horizon. Even today the legacy of alchemists can physically be seen in cities such as Prague, where the legacy of Rudolf II is in the Golden alley and the astronomical clock.Alchemists contributed greatly to the diverse fields of chemical industries -- basic metallurgy, metalworking, the production of inks, dyes, paints, and cosmetics, leather-tanning, and the preparation of extracts and liquors. This influence is something that went widely unappreciated when Alchemists were being disregarded as pseudoscience charletains in early modern Europe. Until very recently, the discussion of alchemy could not be had without these negative connotations, but more and more research is allowing us to decode the cryptic work of alchemists, revealing the great significance they had to our modern scientific world.The scientific method owes its roots to alchemy and the processes of  trial and error to achieve an unreachable goal. Alchemy served as the ancient connection of people exploring  the physical world in hopes of understanding it. Alchemy shows us that throughout history, humans have always strived to understand the mysteries of the universe on a deeper level. The progress we have made in science is astronomical and we have to acknowledge the strides alchemy made in creating societal acceptance towards experimentation. Alchemy changed the world forever and it continues to serve as inspiration of experimentation and ingenuity today.

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This essay was written for my history course at the University of Portland Salzburg Center